African Subnational Governments, Climate Diplomacy, and the Expanding Role of Paradiplomacy in Global Governance

Introduction

Paradiplomacy, broadly understood as the parallel diplomacy or international engagement of subnational governments (i.e., provinces, sub-states, regions, local governments, cities, municipalities and urban conurbations), has increasingly transformed contemporary systems of global governance. Traditionally, diplomacy was perceived as the exclusive responsibility of sovereign nation-states. However, globalisation, climate change, urbanisation, migration, economic interdependence, and decentralised governance reforms have significantly expanded the role of local governments in international affairs.

According to Soldatos (1990), subnational governments increasingly operate as foreign policy actors because globalisation has weakened the monopoly of central governments over international engagement. Similarly, Cornago (2010) argues that sub-state diplomacy has gradually become normalised within modern international relations due to the growing complexity of transnational governance challenges.

Within Africa, these developments are becoming increasingly visible as subnational governments such as cities and municipalities engage in international climate governance, decentralised cooperation, urban diplomacy, sustainable development partnerships, and the promotion of foreign investment. African local governments are increasingly participating in international city networks, climate coalitions, development cooperation frameworks, and transnational governance initiatives to address urban vulnerabilities and development deficits.

Africa’s rapid urbanisation has significantly accelerated this transition. According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD, 2025), Africa’s urban population is projected to increase from nearly 700 million people today to approximately 1.4 billion by 2050, making Africa one of the fastest urbanising regions globally. This demographic transformation places subnational governments at the centre of climate adaptation, infrastructure development, migration governance, economic transformation, and sustainable development planning.

At the same time, African subnational governments continue to face severe governance and financing challenges linked to infrastructure deficits, climate vulnerability, unemployment, weak institutional capacity, housing shortages, and fiscal constraints. Consequently, these levels of government are increasingly pursuing international partnerships and decentralised cooperation frameworks to mobilise technical expertise, climate finance, development assistance, and foreign investment.

Emerging African scholarship increasingly highlights the growing importance of paradiplomacy and decentralised cooperation in strengthening local governance systems. According to Omiunu, Nganje and Aniyie, in Subnational Foreign Relations in Africa: An Interdisciplinary Analysis of South Africa and Nigeria, subnational governments across Africa are increasingly engaging in international cooperation, economic diplomacy, climate governance, and development partnerships despite institutional and constitutional limitations. Their analysis demonstrates that African municipalities are becoming increasingly important actors within emerging systems of global governance.

Similarly, the works and policy contributions of Oru Allens Agbor on decentralised cooperation, climate governance, debt sustainability, and urban diplomacy further reinforce the growing strategic importance of local governments in African development governance. In his MSc thesis titled Decentralised Cooperation and Sustainable Development in Cameroon: A Case Study of the Limbe City Council (2023), Agbor argues that decentralised cooperation mechanisms can significantly strengthen local development through municipal partnerships, international cooperation, and community-centred governance initiatives.

Against this backdrop, this policy update critically examines the rise of Paradiplomacy in Africa, the increasing internationalisation of subnational governments, the governance and financing constraints confronting these levels of government, and the broader implications for climate governance and sustainable urban development across Africa.

The Rise of Paradiplomacy in Africa

The increasing involvement of African subnational governments in international affairs reflects broader structural transformations within contemporary governance systems. Subnational governments are no longer viewed merely as administrative institutions implementing national policies; rather, they are progressively emerging as strategic diplomatic, developmental, and economic actors operating within transnational governance networks.

According to the OECD (2024), decentralization has become one of the most important governance reforms globally over the last fifty years, involving the transfer of political, administrative, and fiscal responsibilities from central governments to local authorities. The OECD further estimates that approximately 523,000 subnational governments exist globally across more than 100 countries, collectively representing nearly 82% of the world’s population

In Africa, decentralization reforms have expanded municipal responsibilities in areas such as urban planning, waste management, infrastructure development, climate adaptation, public transportation, environmental governance, and local economic development. However, fiscal decentralization has often remained weak, thereby limiting the ability of municipalities to independently address rapidly growing urban challenges.

As a result, many African subnational governments are increasingly engaging in paradiplomatic initiatives to attract investments, strengthen urban resilience, secure climate finance, and promote local development. Cities such as Cape Town, Lagos, Kigali, and Nairobi have become increasingly active within international urban governance networks focused on sustainability, climate resilience, innovation, and smart city development.

For example, Lagos has increasingly pursued international partnerships linked to transportation modernisation and urban resilience infrastructure. Kigali has strengthened its international visibility through smart governance and sustainable urban planning initiatives. At the same time, Cape Town has expanded renewable energy transitions and climate adaptation partnerships through transnational municipal climate networks. These developments illustrate the growing operationalisation of paradiplomacy across African urban governance systems.

Climate Change and the Expansion of City Diplomacy

Climate change has become one of the most important drivers of paradiplomacy globally and particularly within Africa. African cities remain among the most climate-vulnerable urban spaces in the world due to weak infrastructure systems, rapid informal urbanisation, limited adaptive capacity, and growing environmental pressures.

According to the United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat, 2024), more than 60% of Africa’s urban population currently resides within informal settlements characterised by inadequate infrastructure, poor sanitation systems, weak drainage networks, and heightened vulnerability to environmental disasters.

Similarly, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2023) emphasises that African cities are increasingly exposed to flooding, droughts, coastal erosion, extreme heat, food insecurity, and water scarcity. These climate pressures place enormous burdens on municipal governance systems and urban development planning.

In response, African municipalities are increasingly engaging in international climate governance frameworks and transnational municipal climate networks to mobilise climate finance, technical assistance, and adaptation partnerships. According to C40 Cities (2025), city-led climate initiatives globally could help close approximately 37% of the emissions reduction gap required to limit global warming to 1.5°C if fully implemented. The report further notes that urban climate mitigation and adaptation actions have significantly increased over the last decade, demonstrating the growing influence of cities within global climate governance systems.

African cities are therefore becoming increasingly active within global climate diplomacy. For instance, Cape Town’s investments in water resilience following its severe drought crisis significantly strengthened the city’s role within international climate adaptation networks. Similarly, Casablanca has increasingly expanded sustainability initiatives linked to renewable energy transitions and environmental governance reforms.

These developments demonstrate that climate governance is no longer exclusively a national responsibility. Instead, implementation increasingly occurs at the urban level, thereby strengthening the strategic importance of paradiplomacy within Africa’s sustainable development agenda.

Financing Constraints, Debt Pressures, and Governance Fragmentation

Despite the growing importance of Paradiplomacy in Africa, major institutional and financial constraints continue to undermine its effectiveness. One of the most pressing challenges involves limited fiscal autonomy and weak municipal financing systems.

According to the OECD Subnational Finance Report (2024), subnational governments globally account for approximately 55% of public investment within OECD countries, particularly in infrastructure and climate-related projects. However, many African municipalities lack comparable fiscal capacity due to over-centralised governance systems, low internally generated revenues, and dependence on national government transfers.

At the same time, rising sovereign debt burdens across Africa have significantly constrained infrastructure financing and climate adaptation investments. According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF, 2025), over twenty African countries are currently facing high risks of debt distress or are already debt-distressed. These debt pressures have reduced fiscal space for urban development, public investment, and local climate resilience programs.

Emerging African scholarship increasingly highlights the interconnected relationship between debt vulnerability, climate governance, and urban development. The policy analyses and governance commentaries of Oru Allens Agbor particularly emphasise the growing “debt-climate-city nexus” confronting African local governments. Agbor argues that debt pressures, climate vulnerability, and urban governance crises are increasingly interconnected within African development systems, thereby requiring more localised and decentralised governance approaches.

Institutional fragmentation further weakens paradiplomatic effectiveness across Africa. Many African countries still lack comprehensive legal frameworks clearly defining the international roles of municipalities and local governments. Consequently, tensions sometimes emerge between national governments and local authorities regarding sovereignty, foreign policy coordination, and international representation.

The absence of a coordinated continental paradiplomatic framework also limits policy coherence and institutional collaboration across African subnational governments. As a result, paradiplomatic engagement remains highly uneven, with globally connected metropolitan cities benefiting more than smaller municipalities with weaker institutional and financial capacities.

Conclusion

The rise of Paradiplomacy in Africa reflects broader transformations in contemporary global governance systems, in which subnational governments are increasingly influential actors in climate governance, sustainable development, decentralised cooperation, and international diplomacy.

African municipalities and cities are increasingly participating in global urban networks, climate partnerships, decentralised cooperation frameworks, and international development initiatives. However, this transformation also exposes significant structural weaknesses, including fragmented governance systems, weak fiscal decentralisation, limited access to climate finance, and uneven institutional capacities.

As urbanisation, climate vulnerability, and sovereign debt pressures intensify across Africa, the strategic importance of paradiplomacy will likely continue to grow. Strengthening local governance systems, improving municipal financing mechanisms, enhancing access to climate finance, and institutionalising coherent paradiplomatic frameworks will therefore become increasingly essential for Africa’s sustainable urban future.

Ultimately, the African experience demonstrates that the future of governance and sustainable development may increasingly depend not only on national governments but also on the ability of subnational authorities to meaningfully participate within evolving systems of global cooperation and international diplomacy.

 References

Cornago, N. (2010). On the Normalization of Sub-State Diplomacy.Link: (PDF) On the Normalization of Sub-State Diplomacy

Criekemans, D. (2006). How subnational entities try to develop their own ‘paradiplomacy’: The case of Flanders (1993–2005). Section International Politics, University of Antwerp, Belgium. Link: Microsoft Word - CRIEKEMANS_Paradiplomacy.doc

Omiunu, Nganje and Aniyie. Subnational Foreign Relations in Africa: An Interdisciplinary Analysis of South Africa and Nigeria.Link: https://www.africanparadiplomacynetwork.com/

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2025). Africa’s Urbanisation Dynamics 2025.Link: Africa's Development Dynamics 2025 | OECD

OECD. (2024). Decentralisation and Multi-Level Governance.Link: Multi-level governance | OECD

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C40 Cities. (2025). Cities and Nations Driving Climate Progress Together.Link: 2025 in action: cities and nations driving climate progress together - C40 Cities

United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat). (2024). World Cities Report.Link: World Cities Report 2024: Cities and Climate Action | UN-Habitat

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2023). Climate Change 2023 Synthesis Report.Link: IPCC_AR6_SYR_LongerReport.pdf

International Monetary Fund (IMF). (2025). Regional Economic Outlook: Sub-Saharan Africa.Link: Regional Economic Outlook for Sub-Saharan Africa, October 2025

Soldatos, P. (1990). An Explanatory Framework for the Study of Federated States as Foreign-Policy Actors.Link: An Explanatory Framework for the Study of Federated States as Foreign-policy Actors | Federalism and International Relations: The Role of Subnational Units | Oxford Academic

Agbor, O. A. (2023). Decentralised Cooperation and Sustainable Development in Cameroon: A Case Study of the Limbe City Council. MSc Thesis, University of Buea. (Not Available online)

Agbor, O. A. (2025). Debt, Climate, and Cities: A Trilemma Africa Must Solve Now. LinkedIn Policy Article. https://www.linkedin.com/posts/oru-allens-agbor-127673209_debtjustice-climatejustice-urbanresilience-activity-7323332025766105088-qlRt?utm_source=share&utm_medium=member_desktop&rcm=ACoAADT1I-8B3rXUS1SIQPXexXVCK825pokk4Vg 

Agbor, O. A. (2025). Financing Africa’s Future: The Debt-Climate-City Nexus in the IMF’s Sub-Saharan Africa Outlook. Policy Research Paper (Not Available online)

African Subnational Governments, Climate Diplomacy, and the Expanding Role of Paradiplomac.

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